PhD student at the Institut géographique national working in collaboration with the Service hydrographique et océanographique de la Marine. --- Doctorante travaillant à l'Institut géographique national en collaboration avec le Service hydrographique et océanographique de la Marine.
Last year I successfully completed the first year of my Master’s degree in the Cultural History of Science and Technology, Digital Humanities and Mediation, which is offered by the Centre François Viète research laboratory at the Université de Bretagne Occidentale in Brest. A large part of the year was taken up by my research project, “An historic analysis of tide prediction machines using an adapted prosopographic approach and digital humanities tools,” which can be found here: doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.3265011. In this post I’m going to give a quick summary of what I achieved during the year in relation to this research project.
I gave a 5-minute speed lecture entitled “A New Wave of Prosopography: an Application to Tide Prediction Machines” at the International Postgraduate Port and Maritime Studies Network Conference 2019 at the University of Dundee, UK, on 25 April 2019. My presentation can be found here: doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.3003566.
Now Helen Mair Rawsthorne giving a speed lecture on her ideas on prosopographical methodology and how it can be applied to the study of objects. pic.twitter.com/N0xMlpXSVh
I won DARIAH-EU’s Digital Humanities methods and tools blog competition 2019 with my article “Tide Prediction Machines, Prosopography and Digital Humanities: what are they and how do they fit together?”, which can be found here: dhmethods.hypotheses.org/229. I was awarded a scholarship to attend the DARIAH’s Annual Event 2019 in Warsaw, Poland, and showcase my research at a poster presentation there. My poster can be found here: doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.2908250.
June 2019
I gave a 20-minute presentation entitled “The Development of Tide Prediction Machines” at the Shaped by the Sea workshop at the University of Manchester, UK, on 27 June 2019. My presentation can be found here: doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.3261817.
I gave a 20-minute presentation entitled “A New Wave of Prosopography: an Application to Tide Prediction Machines” at the Oceanext 2019 conference (within La Mer XXL exhibition) at Nantes Exhibition Centre, France, on 4 July 2019. My presentation can be found here: doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.3269511.
This post concludes the work for the first year of my Master’s degree. My life last year was completely and unexpectedly taken over by tide prediction machines, but I enjoyed the work immensely. I put a lot of time and effort into it and I am very pleased with the results. I am currently in the process of developing the subject for this year’s research project, which will be my Master’s thesis. I will shortly be starting a new blog to document this next part of my adventure – tide and time wait for no man (or woman)!
This article has been adapted from Chapters 1 and 3 of my research project entitled ‘An historic analysis of tide prediction machines using an adapted prosopographic approach and digital humanities tools’, which I wrote during the first year of my Master’s degree. A copy of the full text can be found at: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.3265011.
What are tide prediction machines?
The Roberts-Légé tide prediction machine, built 1908. Photograph taken by author
at the Tide & Time exhibition, National Oceanography Centre, Liverpool, on 15 January 2019.
Tide Prediction Machines are analogue computers that were used to predict the times of high and low tides worldwide from the end of the 1800s up to the digital age. The first tide prediction machine was designed by William Thomson (1824–1907), and was built in London in 1873. It was developed as a response to increasing pressure from commercial shipping lines towards the middle of the nineteenth century who wanted a greater number of more accurate tidal predictions more quickly than could be calculated by hand. As well as helping shipping lines and navies to safely navigate the seas and the shores, tide prediction machines became crucial to the building of ports and effective flood defences. A total of 25 of the 33 tide prediction machines ever built were constructed in the UK but were then shipped to other countries who wanted to do their own calculations.
How do you calculate tidal predictions?
Tidal observation refers to the act of continuously measuring the height of a body of water at any one location, usually using a tide gauge, to produce a set of tidal observations. Such sets of tidal observations are key to calculating predictions of future (or past!) tides using the harmonic method of tidal analysis.
The harmonic method of tidal analysis uses a set of tidal observations for any given location to isolate and identify every factor, known as a constituent, that contributes to the tides there (Pouvreau 2008, p. 37). Each constituent is related to a different lunar or solar frequency with a known period T. The harmonic analysis allows for each constituent to be broken down into harmonic constants: an amplitude A and a phase φ, which are dependent on the chosen location. Inversely, harmonic tidal prediction involves summing each individual constituent that contributes to the tides at a chosen location and therefore requires the harmonic constants for that location to have already been calculated. The more constituents taken into account in the calculation, the more accurate the prediction will be. Tide prediction machines use the harmonic method of prediction to calculate the times and heights of high and low tides at any moment in time and at any location in the world, provided the corresponding harmonic constants are known.
The equation above shows the equation that tide prediction machines were designed to calculate (Bell 1962, p. 1; Woodworth 2016, p. 6). It sums over a finite number N of constituents i as a function of time t, where Ai is the amplitude of the constituent i, ωi = 2π ∕ Ti is the angular speed of the constituent i for which Ti is the period of the corresponding lunar or solar frequency, and φi is the phase of the constituent i. The equation gives as an output H(t), which is the height of the water above (H(t) > 0) or below (H(t) < 0) the mean water level at time t. The times t at which the maxima and minima of H(t) occur are the times of high and low tide respectively. The height of the water at any time is given by H(t) + H0, where H0 is the mean water level.
How do tide prediction machines work?
Tide prediction machines are made up of a system of pulleys, shown the photograph below, each representing a different constituent. The pulleys simultaneously oscillate vertically and rotate. The period of each constituent is pre-programmed into the corresponding pulley, and the amplitude and phase of each pulley is set by the machine operator according to the harmonic constituents for the chosen location. A wire wound around the pulleys allows for the movement of the pulleys to be added, giving the output of the total rise or fall of the tide above the mean water level as a function of time for the programmed place. Not all tide machines were built the same but most operated on this principle and gave the outputs in the form of graphs, on dials or in displays.
Pulley system on the Doodson-Légé tide prediction machine, built 1950. Photograph
taken by author at the Tide & Time exhibition, National Oceanography Centre, Liverpool, on
15 January 2019.
Bibliography Bell, W. H. (1962). Tide Predicting with TIDAC. en. Tech. rep. 130. Nanaimo: Pacific Oceanographic Group, Fisheries Research Board of Canada, p. 18. Pouvreau, Nicolas (2008). ‘Trois cents ans de mesures marégraphiques en France : outils, méthodes et tendances des composantes du niveau de la mer au port de Brest’. fr. Doctor of Philosophy. La Rochelle: Université de La Rochelle. Woodworth, Philip L. (2016). An inventory of tide prediction machines. en. URL: http://nora.nerc.ac.uk/id/eprint/513660 (visited on 10/10/2018).
This article has been adapted from Chapter 3 of my research project entitled ‘An historic analysis of tide prediction machines using an adapted prosopographic approach and digital humanities tools’, which I wrote during the first year of my Master’s degree. A copy of the full text can be found at: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.3265011.
As with many scientific theories, the development of tidal theory and methods of predicting the tides throughout history has been motivated by practical needs. Here are just a few of the reasons why tidal predictions have been and continue to be important:
Why are tidal predictions important? From the primitive to the modern day (Rawsthorne 2019).
The most primitive reasons that motivated the search for methods of predicting times and heights of the tides include coastal dwelling, fishing and marine navigation. A need for tidal forecasts came with the development of ports, docks and harbours for their successful operation and management, and for coastal surveying. Engineers also started to make use of tidal predictions for coastal zone engineering projects, which include the construction and destruction of bridges and platforms. As for recreational activities, tidal forecasts are useful for beachgoers and for the safe practice of watersports, as well as for houseboat living. More precise predictions were called for as commercial shipping and naval operations evolved, and for the building of effective coastal and estuarine flood defences. Tidal predictions today are used for many more purposes than ever before. They are used by biologists and ecologists to better understand floating animals and plants, for habitat restoration projects and to study the effects of pollutants in bodies of tidal water (NOAA 2019). Tidal predictions and weather forecasts have a symbiotic relationship as the tides and the climate both affect each other, meaning that meteorologists make use of tidal predictions just as oceanographers make use of weather forecasts. The most recent use for tidal predictions is for harnessing tidal power, which can be converted into renewable energy.
Bibliography NOAA (2019). Tides and Water Levels: The Importance of Monitoring the Tides and Their Currents. en. URL: https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/education/tutorial_tides/tides09_monitor.html (visited on 02/05/2019). Rawsthorne, Helen Mair. (2019). ‘The Development of Tide Prediction Machines’, Shaped by the Sea workshop. University of Manchester, 27-28 June. en. DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.3261817.
This article has been adapted from Chapter 3 of my research project entitled ‘An historic analysis of tide prediction machines using an adapted prosopographic approach and digital humanities tools’, which I wrote during the first year of my Master’s degree. A copy of the full text can be found at: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.3265011.
The tides
It would be difficult to talk about the history of tidal prediction without first introducing the notion of tides. Tides on Earth can be observed in bodies of water such as oceans, seas and lakes. Physically they appear as vertical movements of the surface of the water, the maximum and minimum of which are known as high water and low water, and alternating horizontal movements of the water, known as tidal currents (Gordon et al. 2015).
To understand why tides exist on Earth, it is necessary to have some knowledge of the interactions between the Earth, the Moon and the Sun. The Moon is attracted to the Earth because of gravitational attraction but is also repulsed by the Earth due to the centrifugal force that results from the Moon spinning around it. The diagram below shows the Earth (large circle on the left), the water on the surface of the Earth (oval) the Moon (small circle on the right) and the forces in play between them: the red arrows represent the direction and the intensity of the force of gravitational attraction, the blue arrows represent the direction and the intensity of the centrifugal force and the green arrows represent the direction and the intensity of the resultant tide-causing force. The intensity of the centrifugal force on the Earth is constant whilst the intensity of the gravitational attraction varies proportionally to the changing distance between the Earth and the Moon. It is the combination of these two forces that results in the tides: when the resulting force is directed towards the centre of the Earth, the water level falls, and when the force is directed away from the centre of the Earth in the plane of the Moon, the water level rises, as shown by the green arrows in the diagram. The Sun contributes to tides on Earth in exactly the same way as the Moon does, but to a lesser extent. At most locations on Earth tides are semidiurnal, which means that low tide and high tide each occur twice per day. This effect is a result of the rotation of the Earth itself and the fact that there is always high water on two opposite sides of the Earth at any one time. There is also a diurnal component to the tides, which is because of the asymmetry of the high water directed towards and away from the Moon (Ifremer 2004).
Diagram showing the forces in play between the Earth and the Moon. The red arrows represent the direction and the intensity of the force of gravitational attraction, the blue arrows represent the direction and the intensity of the centrifugal force and the green arrows represent the resultant tide-causing force. Not to scale. Diagram created by Vincent Lecoustey.
There are also certain geographical features on Earth that affect the height of the tides and their fluctuation in time. These features include the shape of the specific beach, the angle of the seabed leading up to the beach, the shape and depth of the surrounding coastline and the prevailing ocean currents (Byrd 2019). As well as these predictable astronomical and geographical tidal influences, the climate and weather have very unpredictable influences on the tides on Earth.
For all the astronomical, geographical and meteorological reasons aforementioned, the tides on Earth do not follow a repeated pattern (National Oceanography Centre 2019[b]). This means that the only way of knowing the times and heights of future tides is to forecast or predict them using an equation that takes into account the factors that cause them.
History of tidal science and prediction
Before tide prediction machines
Tidal theory is the result of centuries of observations, hypotheses, empirical research and contributions from dozens of the brightest minds from a multitude of locations across the world.
The first attempts at predicting the tides were made by those occupying lands next to tidal waters in the form of rule-of-thumb methods linked to the phase of the moon. There is evidence from centuries and millennia before the Christian era of early Indian and Arabic civilisations recognising the influence of the moon over the tides, and of their interaction with and efforts to manage the tides (Cartwright 2000, p. 1-6). The Copernican Revolution, which stemmed from an idea by Nikolaus Copernicus (1473–1543) that the Earth is not located at the centre of the universe but that it revolves around the Sun with other planets, allowed for the development of a new genre of physical theories of the tides from the sixteenth century. Distinguished polymaths and natural philosophers of the time such as Francis Bacon (1561–1626), Galileo Galilei (1564–1642), Johannes Kepler (1571–1630) and René Descartes (1596–1650) all contributed their theories of the tides, with varying levels of success (Cartwright 2000, p. 25-34). These attempts were eclipsed by a tidal theory by Isaac Newton (1643–1727), developed in the seventeenth century as part of his gravitational theory. The fundamental principles of Newton’s tidal theory remain in accordance with scientific understanding today, although some deductions drawn from them are erroneous (Cartwright 2000, p. 35). Around a century later and following many suggestions and modifications by other natural philosophers, Pierre-Simon de Laplace (1749–1827) proposed a dynamic theory of the tides, which for the first time took into account the dynamicity of the response of the ocean to tidal forces. Laplace translated his theory into a set of equations, today known as the Laplace Tidal Equations, which describe this dynamic response of the ocean (Cartwright 2000, p. 68-81).
From theories to analysis and prediction
The nineteenth century saw a shift in focus from tidal theories to the more practical analysis and prediction of tides. By expanding upon the base of data used by Laplace and making careful refinements to established theories, John William Lubbock (1803–1865) devised the so-called synthetic method of tidal analysis and prediction in the 1830s, which gave the most accurate predictions for tides at Liverpool at the time and therefore became the preferred method for calculating tide tables for British ports (Cartwright 2000, p. 91-92). The next significant advancement came in 1867 from Thomson in the form of a harmonic method of tidal analysis, based upon Laplace’s equations and works by Thomas Young (1773– 1829) and George Biddell Airy (1801–1892) (Cartwright 2000, p. 82-83, 97). This development attracted the interest of the British Association for the Advancement of Science (BAAS), who in the same year established a committee for the improvement and promotion of this newly discovered method (NOAA 2018).
The harmonic method of analysis, based upon observations of sea levels (Pouvreau 2008, p. 37), allows for the individual factors causing the tides to be isolated as unique mathematical components and provides better results for a wider range of locations than the synthetic model, but is a much more complicated calculation. Its complexity meant that doing the calculation by hand was time-consuming and prone to errors, which was part of the motivation for devising a mechanical device capable of doing this calculation.
Development of tide Prediction machines
The development of the first tide prediction machine was made possible thanks to funding from the BAAS who decided that calculations done by hand alone could no longer be relied upon to predict the tides at ports around the country. This was because of the increasing pressure from commercial shipping lines towards the middle of the nineteenth century, who wanted a greater number of more accurate predictions more quickly.
The first ever tide prediction machine, which features in the photograph below, was developed in Great Britain during a period when science and industry were growing closer together, a period of widespread mechanisation (Durand-Richard 2016, p. 127-128). However, the idea of a mechanical calculating machine was not new; Charles Babbage had already conceived the idea half a century earlier with his Difference Engine and Analytical Engine (Dasgupta 2014, p. 22). More specifically, it is known that the design for the first tide prediction machine was inspired by a mechanical device devised by Charles Wheatstone for telegraphy purposes (Cartwright 2000, p. 104).
Kelvin’s first operational tide prediction machine, built 1873. Photograph taken by H. M. Rawsthorne at the Science Museum, London, on 2 February 2019.
The construction of the first operational tide prediction machine was completed in 1873. It was designed by Thomson with the help of Edward Roberts and Alexander Légé, whose company A. Légé & Co. manufactured it in London (Woodworth 2016, p. 14). Lubbock’s synthetic method was relied upon for producing British tide tables until around 1920, by which time six further tide prediction machines had been constructed. These machines were primarily kept in Great Britain but were used to predict the tides at British colonial ports. Meanwhile, William E. Ferrel (1817–1891) and George Howard Darwin (1845–1912) were making modifications and improvements to Thomson’s harmonic method, and later Joseph Proudman (1888–1975) and Arthur Thomas Doodson (1890–1968) made significant contributions to tidal studies, and Doodson in particular to the improvement of tide prediction machines (Doodson 1921; Reidy 2008, p. 188). Eventually the transition from the synthetic method to the harmonic method in Great Britain was made, and thus the adoption of tide prediction machines for domestic ports (Cartwright 2000, p. 97-108).
Tidal prediction today
Tidal predictions today are calculated using specially-made software that run on digital computers. They use the same harmonic method as the analogue machines of the last century, but are able to take into account many more constituents. The NOC has developed a software called POLTIPS-3 that can calculate predictions for anywhere in the world using up to 240 different constituents (National Oceanography Centre 2019[a]) whilst the SHOM uses a software called MAS that uses up to 541 constituents (Pouvreau 2008, p. 39-40).
Bibliography Byrd, Deborah (2019). Tides, and the pull of the moon and sun. en. URL: https://earthsky.org/earth/tides-and-the-pull-of-the-moon-and-sun (visited on 01/05/2019). Cartwright, David Edgar (2000). Tides: A Scientific History. en. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN: 978-0-521-79746-7. Dasgupta, Subrata (2014). It Began with Babbage: The Genesis of Computer Science. en. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN: 978-0-19-930943-6. Doodson, Arthur Thomas (1921). ‘The Harmonic Development of the Tide-Generating Potential’. en. In: Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. A100.704, pp. 305–329. DOI: 10.1098/rspa.1921.0088. Durand-Richard, Marie-José (2016). ‘De la prédiction des marées : entre calcul, observations et mécanisation (1831-1876)’. fr. In: Cahiers François Viète II.8-9, pp. 105–135. Gordon, Arnold L. et al. (2015). Tide. en. URL: https://library.eb.co.uk/levels/adult/article/tide/72409 (visited on 01/05/2019). Ifremer (2004). Rôle des astres. fr. URL: http://www.ifremer.fr/lpo/cours/maree/forces.html (visited on 12/04/2019). National Oceanography Centre (2019[a]). At the Coast. en. URL: http://noc.ac.uk/business/marine-data-products/coastal (visited on 31/05/2019). — (2019[b]). Tides – Frequently Asked Questions. en. URL: https://noc.ac.uk/files/documents/business/Tides-FAQ.pdf (visited on 02/05/2019). NOAA (2018). History of Tidal Analysis and Prediction. en. URL: https://tidesandcurrents.noaa.gov/predhist.html (visited on 30/05/2019). Pouvreau, Nicolas (2008). ‘Trois cents ans de mesures marégraphiques en France : outils, méthodes et tendances des composantes du niveau de la mer au port de Brest’. fr. Doctor of Philosophy. La Rochelle: Université de La Rochelle. Reidy, Michael S. (2008). Tides of History: Ocean Science and Her Majesty’s Navy. en. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press. ISBN: 978-0-226-70932-1. Woodworth, Philip L. (2016). An inventory of tide prediction machines. en. URL: http://nora.nerc.ac.uk/id/eprint/513660 (visited on 10/10/2018).
Designed and built by Stanford University’s Humanities + Design Lab, Palladio is a Digital Humanities tool for the visualisation of complex historical data. This web-based open source application focuses on data-driven historical research. By modelling historical data we can analyse relationships across time and space and attempt to better understand the past.
Palladio is ideal for those who want to visualise networks, temporal data or geospatial data all from the same database using an intuitive graphical interface. Tabular data in various formats can be copied and pasted or uploaded to Palladio and then manipulated in many ways. It is important to ensure consistency in the data so that correct associations can be made between them.
Graphs for networks
The graph function offered by Palladio can be used for visualising a network or networks and the relationships within and between them. The points can be filtered and sized according to other parameters in the database, which is why the initial database needs to be well thought out and constructed with Palladio in mind.
Palladio: graph of network
Maps for locations
To make use of the map function, Palladio requires data in the “latitude, longitude” format. These points can be plotted on a map of the world and can be coloured, sized, linked and filtered. The base map can also be changed to show different elements, or a custom map can be uploaded.
Palladio: sized points on map
Palladio: linked points on map
Timespans and timelines for dates
The points displayed on a maps or in a graph can be filtered by time, if the database contains data in a date format. Any date data can also be visualised with a timespan, which can have various different layouts, or with a timeline, which takes the form of a bar graph.
Palladio: timespan and timeline
Palladio doesn’t store any user data but anything created on Palladio can be downloaded as a .json file and then uploaded and modified at a later date. Graphs, map points, timespans and timelines can also be downloaded as .sgv image files.
Why use Palladio to visualise data?
Visualising historical data using a comprehensive and interactive application such as Palladio will help the two most important people relating to your research: you and your audience.
For you
Creating diagrams of networks highlights relationships between and within them
Plotting geospatial and temporal data visually makes it easier to spot patterns
Visualisations uncover and draw your attention to trends previously hidden in the data
For your audience
Reading and understanding visualisations of data is easier and quicker
Data in visual forms are more attractive and more likely to be remembered
Visuals facilitate the interpretation and retelling of data
Palladio is an excellent example of a digital humanities tool that can be used by historians to visualise data. From a single database, researchers can create various visual elements that are personalisable according to the data available. Data visualisations can help researchers to make the most of the available data at any point during the research process. They also give meaning to data and facilitate its comprehension by the audience.
Digital humanities is an interdisciplinary area of study that lies in the intersection between the humanities and digital technology. Research in digital humanities goes in two directions: it uses digital technologies to ask questions about and to create new knowledge in the humanities, and uses the humanities to ask questions of and to reflect upon digital technology. The digital technologies in digital humanities come in the form of tools, applications and software (purpose-built for digital humanities or not) that can be used for the effective production and dissemination of research in the humanities.
Digital humanities tools can be useful in the three main stages of a research project: they can help you to advance in your research, to disseminate your results more effectively, and they can help your audience to understand what you’re trying telling them.
Different tools can facilitate the advancement of your research by giving you an environment in which your data and research can be stored, managed and analysed. Data visualisation tools can highlight relationships within and between networks, help you to spot patterns, uncover and draw your attention to trends previously hidden in the data, encourage you to view information in other ways and cause you to make new enquiries. Many digital humanities tools also offer a collaboration function, meaning that you can work together with your colleagues on the same file.
As for diffusing your findings, digital humanities can offer you a wide range of platforms for presenting and sharing your data, in many different ways.
Data presented in innovative formats will make your research more accessible and understandable by different types of learners. Visual representations could be better for younger audiences or those unfamiliar with your area of study because reading and interpreting visualisations of data can be easier and quicker than databases or text. Data in visual forms are also more attractive and more likely to be remembered, thereby facilitating their retelling.
Examples of digital humanities tools reviewed on this blog: Palladio, Zotero.
Reflections on the introduction to Paul Forman’s article “On the Historical Forms of Knowledge Production and Curation: Modernity Entailed Disciplinarity, Postmodernity Entails Antidisciplinarity,” published in Osiris Volume 27, Number 1, 2012.
Paul Forman (b. 1937) is an historian of science whose research focusses on the history of physics and is best known for two controversial theses regarding the influence of German culture on early interpretations of quantum mechanics and the influence of military funding on the character and course of scientific research.
The abstract states that this article continues and extends Forman’s previous efforts to characterise modernity and to map the change in state of mind constituting the transition to postmodernity. Forman opens the introduction with the claim that “the fate of the disciplines” has been a matter of concern for over a generation with the rise of “discipline-disregarding discourse” in academia and beyond. Referring to the works of Perry Anderson, Forman talks about the fall of modernity and the onset of postmodernity as a cultural transformation that manifests itself through the breakdown of disciplinarity and the dedifferentiation of scholarly discourse. He notes that we find ourselves in an unusual situation as many commentaries on the subject have been made, however there has been no extended historical discussion.
Forman continues, citing David Hollinger, by considering the example of higher education institutions. He claims that the way that universities are structured is outdated, but that those who wish for them to be restructured are those employed in the lowest ranks and that only Professors understand that such drastic restructuring would have catastrophic results. When the subject is broached, according to Forman, it is dealt with only from the perspective of postmodern pragmatism, rather than the more appropriate perspective disciplinarity. At this point, we are given two definitions by Forman:
Postmodernism is the “self-consciously held ideology and associated literary practices”.
Postmodernity is an “historical epoch characterised by a set of unreflectively held cultural presuppositions”.
Forman explains that confusion between postmodernism and postmodernity leads to the belief postmodernity is dwindling, when in fact it is postmodernism that was being left behind in the 1990s. This has caused us to continue talking of disciplines as though meaningful instantiations of the ideals and institutions signified by disciplinarity still exist, or even could exist. The consequence, according to Forman, is that disciplinarity is now an ideological and practical impossibility.
Disciplinarity is a “cultural idea, a set of presuppositions about where the value of knowledge lies and what sorts of knowledge posses highest value, the morally charged behavioural norms that producers and curators must satisfy and the proper embodiments of knowledge in formal institutions”.
Forman continues by giving a brief description of the evolution and use of the word disciplinarity, noting that although the term began to take shape towards the end of the 18th century it wasn’t widely used until after World War II when it was “almost universally regarded as the inevitable, as well as the most estimable, mode of knowledge production”. Its status was supposed to remain until “the end of history”, as Forman puts it, but this of course was not the case. He claims that the abrupt and unforeseen change in modernity’s cultural valuation of disciplinarity gives a sensitive index of the transition from modernity to postmodernity, which should urge us to view modernity “not as the end but as the anomaly in human history”.
The first and only subsection within the introduction is entitled Disciplines versus Professions and begins with two definitions:
Disciplines are “institutions for production, validation, and transmission of knowledge […] oriented not to the provision of a practical service but to the production and curation of a distinctive body of knowledge”.
Professions are “institutions oriented primarily to the provision of a practical service on the basis of possession—real, presumed, or pretended—of a distinctive body of knowledge”.
Disciplines were, according to Forman, particular to modernity, but are often confused with professions, which long predated modernity. He admits that professions can border, overlap or draw upon one or more disciplines, but states that professions and disciplines have distinct purposes and practices. Forman discredits the discipline of the history of science for having never made the differentiation between professions and disciplines, a careless act that has resulted in the words becoming synonymous for historians and for the public as a consequence. A by-product of Forman’s article is a better understanding of this confusion. He concludes the introduction by bringing together disciplines, professions, science historians and the public: “however fundamental from the perspective of the history of science the difference between disciplines and professions is, or ought to be, that difference counts little against the broad overlap in cultural presuppositions determining the cultural regard for professions and disciplines alike”.
Bibliography Forman, Paul. “Weimar culture, causality, and quantum theory: adaptation by German physicists and mathematicians to a hostile environment.” Historical Studies in the Physical Sciences 3 (1971): 1-115. Forman, Paul. “Behind quantum electronics: National security as basis for physical research in the United States, 1940-1960.” Historical Studies in the Physical and Biological Sciences 18 (1987): 149-229. Forman, Paul. “On the Historical Forms of Knowledge Production and Curation: Modernity Entailed Disciplinarity, Postmodernity Entails Antidisciplinarity.” Osiris 27 (2012): 56-97.
Le croiseur porte-hélicoptères la Jeanne d’Arc fut construit de 1959 à 1964 par l’arsenal de Brest. Ce nom honore la héroïne et sainte de l’église catholique Jeanne d’Arc. Pendant sa construction le bâtiment avait le nom provisoire de La Résolue, mais il était renommé le jour de son armement le 16 juillet 1964 à Brest. La Jeanne d’Arc a été retirée du service le 7 juin 2010, quelques jours après être rentrée de sa dernière mission. Son démantèlement a eu lieu à Bordeaux entre 2014 et 2016.
Le chantier de construction de la Jeanne d’Arc a marqué et marque encore Brest et les brestois. Le chantier s’ouvre en 1960 ; 2010 signe la fin de son activité. En faisant de Brest son port de départ et d’arrivée lors de chaque campagne, ce bâtiment exceptionnel a su garder sa place essentielle et rythmer la vie locale.
Le Service Historique de la Défense (SHD) à Brest détient sur le chantier de construction de la Jeanne d’Arc un fonds d’archives exceptionnel, issu des activités de la DCNS (aujourd’hui Naval Group) : 6 albums rassemblant 278 photographies dont plus d’une centaine ont été numérisées, comme celle qui se trouve ci-dessous.
La Résolue sous construction à Brest, le 4 septembre 1961. Archive 9 Fi 1/74-34 au SHD à Brest.
Ce sujet s’inscrit dans le cadre de recherche du Centre François Viète (CFV) à l’Université de Bretagne Occidentale (UBO) sur l’histoire des activités humaines dans la construction navale à Brest. Sur ce thème, cet ensemble photographique soulève plusieurs questions dont celle de l’interprétation. Celle-ci nécessite la collaboration avec des personnes ayant participé aux chantiers, ces dernières étant les seules à pouvoir expliciter les procédures et les gestes techniques capturés par les photographies.
Le projet
On a lancé ce projet “Ils ont fait la Jeanne”, qui sera une collaboration entre les anciens personnels de la DCNS, le SHD et le CFV/UBO. L’objectif du projet étudiant est de constituer un réseau d’experts en lien avec les activités de construction navale : en effet, nous souhaitons par ce projet mobiliser d’anciens membres de DCNS afin de participer à l’interprétation des photos du chantier de construction (1960-1964).
Ce projet de valorisation du patrimoine industriel est inscrit dans une temporalité longue. Il a vocation à mettre en lumière les fonds d’archives exceptionnels conservés par le SHD à Brest en lien avec la construction et les missions de la Jeanne d’Arc. Dans une perspective chronologique, ce projet étudiant se concentrera cette année sur la construction de la Jeanne d’Arc par DCNS. Ainsi, lors des Journées Européennes du Patrimoine 2019 (21-22 septembre) un premier temps fort autour des photographies de la construction se déroulera au SHD de Brest. La suite du projet s’inscrit dans des dynamiques plus globales en lien avec un projet d’exposition porté par le SHD programmée pour 2021. Cette exposition mettra en valeur des fonds d’archives dédiés à la Jeanne d’Arc.
Le SHD est le seul partenaire d’archives publiques en mesure de mettre à disposition de tous un fonds d’une telle envergure. En mobilisant des anciens personnels DCNS, ce projet favorise la transmission intergénérationnelle de savoirs. Cette démarche, inscrite dans le cadre de notre master, nous donne accès à des archives qui n’ont donné lieu à ce jour à aucune exploitation scientifique et historique.
Événement Journées Européennes du Patrimoine 2019 : 21-22 septembre
Dans le cadre des Journées Européennes du Patrimoine, qui auront lieu les 21 et 22 septembre 2019, plusieurs actions autour de la construction de la Jeanne d’Arc seront mises en place dans les locaux du SHD à Brest.
Projection vidéo
Visionnement d’une vidéo de la construction de la Jeanne d’Arc créée par les étudiants à partir des fonds d’archives du SHD. Cette vidéo sera projetée lors des Journées Européennes du Patrimoine au SHD à Brest.
Collaboration d’experts
Il y aura un dispositif de sciences participatives au travers d’une exposition de plusieurs clichés en grands formats, rendant visible divers aspects du savoir-faire des ouvriers et des ingénieurs. Vous serez invités d’annoter les photographies présentées, dans le but d’expliciter les gestes professionnels visibles sur ces dernières.
Ateliers pour les jeunes
La proposition d’ateliers “jeune public” appuyés sur le fonds photographique.
Commentaires sur l’introduction de la deuxième edition revue et corrigée de l’ouvrage “Idéologie et rationalité dans l’histoire des sciences de la vie : Nouvelles études d’histoire et de philosophie des sciences” de Georges Canguilhem, publiée en 2000 par J. Vrin, Paris (première édition publiée en 1977 par J. Vrin, Paris).
Georges Canguilhem (1904–1995) est un philosophe et médecin français qui s’est spécialisé en épistémologie et l’histoire des sciences. Il s’intéressait beaucoup aux “idéologies scientifiques”, en particulier dans le domain des sciences de la vie, ce qui l’a mené à écrire “Idéologie et rationalité dans l’histoire des sciences de la vie : Nouvelles études d’histoire et de philosophie des sciences”. Dans cet ouvrage Canguilhem développe le concept de “idéologie scientifique”, ce qui est une caractéristique essentielle dans “L’Idéologie allemande” par Karl Marx. On peut donc considérer que Canguilhem réinterprète ce concept Marxist dans son propre ouvrage.
L’introduction de “Idéologie et rationalité dans l’histoire des sciences de la vie” est intitulé “Le rôle de l’épistémologie dans l’historiographie scientifique contemporaine” et commence avec une examination des rapports actuelles (en 1977) entre épistémologie et histoire des sciences. Canguilhem prétende que, quant à ce sujet, il existe plus de manifestes ou de programmes que d’échantillons.
Sous le rapport de la chronologie, selon Canguilhem, la discipline philosophique nommé épistémologie en 1854 ne peut attendre rien de l’histoire des sciences, qui est une discipline qui a elle-même une histoire. Cela veut dire que c’est normale que les historiens des sciences du XVIIIe et du XIXe siècles n’avaient mis en œuvre aucun des concepts qui caractérisent le travail des épistémologues à l’époque de Canguilhem.
En citant Dijksterhuis, Canguilhem nous rappel de la métaphore que “l’histoire des sciences n’est pas seulement la mémoire de la science mais aussi le “laboratoire” de l’épistémologie”. Il explique que l’épistémologie s’agit de substituter à l’histoire des sciences les sciences selon leur histoire, mais en ne pas faisant de différence entre les sciences et d’autres aspects de la culture. Les seuls objets d’étude acceptables dans le domaine d’épistémologie sont “des questions de sources, d’inventions ou d’influences, d’antériorité, de simultanéité ou de succession”. Une histoire des sciences pure (sans influences épistémologiques), par contre, réduit une science “à un exposé des rapports chronologiques et logiques entre différents systèmes d’énoncés relatifs à quelques classes de problèmes ou de solutions”.
Canguilhem continue en nous avertissant de l’anachronisme : “L’histoire pure de la botanique au XVIIIe siècle ne peut comprendre sous le nom de botanique rien de plus que ce que les botanistes de l’époque se sont assigné comme leur domaine d’exploration. L’histoire pure réduit la science qu’elle étudie au champ d’investigation qui lui est désigné par les savants de l’époque, et au genre de regard qu’ils portent sur ce champ.”, ce qui provoque Canguilhem à poser une question :
Est-ce que la science du passé est un passé de la science d’aujourd’hui ?
Cette première question fondamentale posé par Canguilhem est traité dans la suite de l’introduction à partir d’un exemple, ce qu’il résume en disant que “le passé d’une science d’aujourd’hui ne se confond pas avec la même science dans son passé”. Cela lui amène à la definition de l’histoire d’une science : c’est “le résumé de la lecture d’une bibliothèque spécialisée, dépôt et conservatoire du savoir produit et exposé”, ce qui signifie que c’est “l’intégralité d’une somme de traces”.
A la fin de l’introduction Canguilhem fait référence à des textes polémiques par des auteurs qui critiquent les programmes déjà explicités, comme Michel Serres qui croit qu’une histoire des sciences n’existe pas, avant d’indiquer que ce sont bien des programmes qui méritent être ajoutés aux autres.
Canguilhem termine son introduction avec la phrase simple et charmante : “En attendant des échantillons.”
Bibliographie Canguilhem, Georges. Idéologie et rationalité dans l’histoire des sciences de la vie : Nouvelles études d’histoire et de philosophie des sciences. Paris: J. Vrin, 2000. K. Marx et F. Engels. The German Ideology. New York: Prometheus Books, 1998.
Prosopography is a research approach usually used by historians to study the lives of groups of people. It involves the creation of a collective biography or the gathering of data relating to the common aspects of the lives of individuals who are part of a particular population. It can take the form of a database of all of the people within the chosen population along with information about the biographical phenomena that transcend their individual lives.
How can I apply prosopography to my project?
I am studying the life cycle of analogue tide prediction machines built in the United Kingdom: the methods used to predict tides before the construction of the first machine, the motivation for creating this machine, the manufacturers, users and uses of the machines, maintenance and repair of the machines, the decommissioning of the machines, subsequent methods of predicting tides and finally the state of the machines today in terms of conservation and scientific mediation.
The notion that objects have biographies despite not being living things is not new, but only recently has the idea of conducting prosopographical studies of collections of related objects began to be explored. This is a concept that I would like to develop and utilise in my project about the history of analogue tide prediction machines.
In my case the population of individuals becomes a group of artefacts, more specifically the 23 analogue tide prediction machines built in the UK between 1873 and 1964 (not including prototypes or portable machines). Complete biographical material for any one individual machine no longer exists, and with such a situation the beauty of prosopographical studies becomes visible. Prosopography overcomes the problem of the scarcity of historical data by collecting together all available fragments, which can then be compared, synthesised and analysed, thus compensating for any gaps in the data. Instead of looking at the exceptional and unique, prosopography focusses on the general and average. It is in this way that prosopography makes visible the particular characteristics representative of the chosen population.
The next step is to create a questionnaire to which I will subject every member of my “population” of analogue tide prediction machines. I do not expect to find an answer to each question for each machine but, as we have already discussed, that will not pose a problem in this prosopographical study; the aim is to find the common features in the lives of analogue tide prediction machines. This will give an appreciation of the importance of these machines, the extent of their use and usefulness, and an impression of the shape of their lives.
Bibliography Bray, Peter. Biography, prosopography and the density of scientific data: Some arguments from the metallurgy of Early Bronze Age Britain and Ireland, in: X. Armada, M. Murillo-Barroso & M. Charlton (ed.), Metals, Minds and Mobility: Integrating Scientific Data with Archeological Theory. Oxford: Oxbow books, 2019, p. 123-133. Kopytoff, Igor. The Cultural Biography of Things: Commoditization as Process, in: A. Appadurai (ed.), The Social Life of Things: Commodities in Cultural Perspective. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986, p. 64-91. S. Tarte, P. Willcox, H. Glaser & D. De Roure. Archetypal Narratives in Social Machines: Approaching Sociality through Prosopography. Proceedings of the SCM Web Science Conference, article no. 24. Oxford, 2015. K. Verboven, M. Carlier & J. Dumolyn. A short manual to the art of prosopography, in: K. Keats-Rohan (ed.), Prosopography Approaches and Applications. A Handbook. Oxford: Unit for Prosopographical Research (Linacre College), 2007, p. 35-69.
The 11th of February every year has become a day to recognise the crucial role played by women and girls in science and technology communities, as declared by the United Nations General Assembly in 2015.
I spent the International Day of Women and Girls in Science 2019 in the company of Valerie Doodson and Sylvia Asquith, who played a vital part in the STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics) industry during their working lives at Bidston Observatory on the Wirral Peninsula in north west England, from 1952 to 1962 and from 1947 to 1990 respectively. We discussed at length the evolution of their work, workplace and colleagues during the years they worked there.
Bidston Observatory had national and international responsibilities during its many years of operation from 1866 to 2004 including telling the exact time with the One O’Clock Gun, carrying out oceanographic research for Liverpool Tidal Institute, predicting the tides for the British Admiralty using analogue tide prediction machines and making meteorological observations for the UK Met Office.
Bidston Observatory, Wirral, UK. Photograph: Helen Mair Rawsthorne (08/01/2019).
Valerie and Sylvia both joined the observatory as part of a team of young women known as “computers” who were employed to operate the tide prediction machines, prepare the outputted data for publication in the British Admiralty Tide Tables, and perform meteorological observations. They explained to me the process of predicting the tides for a given port, which could be anywhere in the world. It began with setting up a tide prediction machine with the correct constituents for the port and then running the machine, reading off the numbers it displayed for each high and low tide over the desired period of time. These numbers would be plotted as a curve graph, which would be checked for “smoothness”; a non-smooth graph suggested the presence of an error. These errors were corrected and the newly-smooth predictions would be typed up ready to be published in the British Admiralty Tide Tables. They recall that the machines were very noisy during operation, although the sound was not unpleasant but rather bell-like.
A reminder of the global importance of the accuracy of the work of the female “computers” at Bidston Observatory was often given, as the lives of people at sea and the efficient running of global maritime transport depended upon it.
It was a delight to see the fondness with which Valerie and Sylvia spoke about their years at Bidston Observatory and I am very grateful to them both for their time and the patience with which they answered all my questions relating to the tide prediction machines with which they are so familiar.
Bibliography International Day of Women and Girls in Science. “From Dream to Reality.” Accessed February 15, 2019. https://womeninscienceday.org/WISID_WP/about. United Nations. “International Day of Women and Girls in Science: Background.” Accessed February 15, 2019. http://www.un.org/en/events/women-and-girls-in-science-day/background.shtml.
This video serves as an introduction to my research project about the history of tide prediction machines. Subtitles available in English and in French.
Le service hydrographique et océanographique de la Marine de France est un établissement public administratif chargé de connaître et décrire l’environnement physique marin et les zones littorales ainsi qu’en prévoir l’évolution et diffuser des informations correspondantes.
Le SHOM est un établissement d’intérêt pour moi parce que il a acheté deux machines à prévoir les marées de Liverpool Observatory and Tidal Institute à Bidston au Royaume-Uni en 1901 et en 1949. J’ai ainsi organisé un stage de deux jours avec Nicolas Pouvreau au SHOM à Brest pour faire de la recherche aux archives.
Les archives contiennent beaucoup de correspondance, surtout entre le SHOM, Liverpool Observatory and Tidal Institute et d’autres agences qui ont un rôle dans les achats étrangers, ainsi que des dossiers promotionnels, des rapports et des notices explicatives. Ces documents aident à reconstituer l’histoire des deux machines à prévoir les marées achetés par le SHOM. C’est interessant de noter que les deux machines acquis par le SHOM de Liverpool Observatory and Tidal Institute étaient d’occasion.
Ainsi que les archives précieuses, le SHOM à Brest aussi abrite la deuxième machine à prévoir les marées qu’il a acquis. Cette machine, appelé la « Bidston Kelvin Machine », était fabriqué par Kelvin Bottomley and Baird Ltd. à Glasgow au Royaume-Uni en 1924-25. Elle était d’abord utilisée à Bidston par Liverpool Observatory and Tidal Institute avant d’être transportée à Paris pour utilisation par le service hydrographique de la Marine (le SHOM de l’époque) et puis à son site actuel à Brest.
Machine à prévoir les marées “Bidston Kelvin Machine” fabriquée par Kelvin Bottomley and Baird Ltd. à Glasgow au Royaume-Uni en 1924-25 et acquis par le SHOM en 1949-50. Photographe : Helen Mair Rawsthorne (18/12/2018). Contenu : le SHOM.
Mon stage au SHOM m’a permis de découvrir beaucoup d’informations pertinents à propos des machines à prévoir les marées et leur utilisation, ce qui m’a aidé et continuera à m’aider énormément dans mon projet de recherche. J’aimerais remercier Nicolas Pouvreau pour m’avoir accueilli au SHOM, Thierry Gendrier et Xavier Romary pour m’avoir aidé aux archives, et Romain Lhullie pour ses idées concernant l’interprétation des machines.
Bibliographie Le SHOM. “Les missions.” Accessed December 28, 2018. http://www.shom.fr/le-shom/presentation-generale/les-missions. Woodworth, Philip. An inventory of tide prediction machines. Southampton: National Oceanography Centre, 2016.
Lord Kelvin (1824-1907), aussi connu sous le nom de William Thomson, est un physicien-mathématicien et ingénieur qui a été un pionnier dans des nombreux domaines, en particulier l’électromagnétisme et la thermodynamique. Cependant, son but premier était l’utilisation pratique de la science, ce qui l’a conduit à l’invention de la machine à prévoir les marées.
Credit: Wellcome Library, London. Wellcome Images images@wellcome.ac.uk http://wellcomeimages.org Portrait de Lord Kelvin (Sir William Thomson) [1824 – 1907], physicien-mathématicien et ingénieur écossais. Peinture à l’huile par : Harry Herman Salomon.
Avant la construction de cette machine, les marées étaient prévues en faisant de longs calculs à la main. Cette méthode était tellement irréalisable à long terme que la British Association for the Advancement of Science (aujourd’hui le British Science Association) a payé pour la construction d’une machine capable à faire ces calculs.
La première machine à prévoir les marées opérationnelle à été conçue par Kelvin et fabriquée entre 1872 et 1873 par l’A. Légé Company à Londres. Elle s’agit d’une calculatrice analogique qui simule la montée et la descente des marées océaniques sous forme de la somme des mouvements sinusoïdaux d’un certain nombre de composantes de marée individuelles. Ces composantes harmoniques sont liés à la position de la lune et du soleil et aussi à la location géographique des marées à prévoir. Chaque composante de la marée est représentée par le mouvement d’une roue de poulie, réglée pour se déplacer à la vitesse appropriée. Un fil enroulé sur plusieurs de ces roues additionne leur mouvement pour donner une représentation de la marée totale de l’endroit programmé. Ce mouvement est capté par un stylo et une bande de papier mobile sur laquelle le stylo trace une courbe de marée.
Après cette première machine, 35 autres machines à prévoir les marées ont été fabriquées partout dans le monde (dont 24 au Royaume-Uni), chacune avec plus de composantes et ainsi des résultats plus précises. Elles étaient utilisées jusqu’à environ 1964, quand l’invention de l’ordinateur numérique a rendu cette calculatrice analogique redondant.
Ce projet étudiera le cycle de vie des machines à prévoir les marées en provenance du Royaume-Uni : les méthodes utilisés avant la fabrication de la première machine, la motivation pour créer cette machine, les fabricants, utilisateurs et usages des machines, comment les machines ont été mises hors service, leurs successeurs éventuels et finalement le statut des machines aujourd’hui en termes de conservation et médiation scientifique.
Bibliographie Cartwright, David. Tides. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000. National Oceanography Centre. “Tide Predicting Machines.” Accessed November 29, 2018. http://www.tide-and-time.uk/tide-predicting-machines. Woodworth, Philip. An inventory of tide prediction machines. Southampton: National Oceanography Centre, 2016.
La grande idée pour le sujet de recherche concerne les machines à prévoir les marées. Seulement 36 machines à prévoir les marées ont été fabriqués dans le monde entier, entre environ 1873 et 1964, dont 25 ont été fabriqués au Royaume-Uni. Ce travail ne portera que sur les machines en provenance du Royaume-Uni.
Le projet traitera ce qui existait avant les machines à prévoir les marées et la motivation pour les créer, les fabricants, utilisateurs et usages de ces machines, et finalement ce qui est passé après la fin de leur utilisation.
Blog des étudiants en Master mention Epistémologie et Histoire des Sciences et Techniques à l'Université de Bretagne Occidentale
![Portrait de Lord Kelvin (Sir William Thomson) [1824 - 1907], physicien-mathématicien et ingénieur écossais. Peinture à l'huile par : Harry Herman Salomon.](https://m1ehst1819.hypotheses.org/files/2018/11/Lord_Kelvin_Sir_William_Thomson_1824_-_1907_Wellcome_M0000145-352x500.jpg)